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Nuclear Chemistry
I: The Nucleus
nucleons = protons + neutrons
nuclide = an atom
ways of representing a nuclide
22888Ra or radium - 228
A: Mass Defect and Nuclear Stability
mass defect - definition
1. Nuclear Binding Energy
loss in mass when nucleons combine - why
mass is converted to energy according to Einsteins theory E = mc2.
nuclear binding energy - def
it can also be thought of as the energy required to break apart the nucleus and thus is a measure of the stability of the nucleus.
2. Binding Energy per Nucleon
this is used to compare the stability of different nuclides
figure 22-1 page 702
binding energy per nucleon can be thought of as the binding energy of the nucleus divided by the number of nucleons
the higher it is the more tightly the nucleons are held together
elements with intermediate atomic masses have the greatest binding energies per nucleon and thus are more stable.
B: Nucleons and Nuclear Stability
Stable nuclides have certain charac teristics.
Figure 22-2 page 703 plots the number of protons against the number of neutrons. We get a belt-like graph.
Band of stability - definition
Atoms with low atomic number have a ratio of one to one; as atomic numbers increase, the ratio increases to about 1.5 to 1 as in lead-206 with 124 neutrons and 82 protons.
Due to relationship between the nuclear force and the electrostatic forces between protons. Nuclear force is a short range force.
Figure 22-3 page 702 Short range nuclear force v electrostatic repulsion
Protons in a nucleus repel all other protons through electrostatic repulsion, but the short range of the nuclear force allows them to attract only protons very close to them.
As the number of protons in a nucleus increases, the electrostatic force between protons increases faster than the nuclear force. More neutrons are required to increase the nuclear force and stabilize the nucleus.
Beyond the atomic number 83, bismuth, the repulsive fore of the protons is so great that no stable nu clides exist.
Stable nuclei tend to have even numbers of nucleons.
Out of 265 stable nuclides, 159 have even numbers of both protons and neutrons. Only four nuclides have odd numbers of both. Thus, the stability of a nucleus is greatest when the nucleons - like electrons- are paired.
The most stable nuclides are those having 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, or 126 protons, neutrons, or total nucleons. this extra stability at certain numbers supports a theory that nucleons- like electrons - exist at certain energy l evels.
According to the nuclear shell model, nucleons exist in different energy levels, or shells, in the nucleus. The numbers of nucleons that represent completed nuclear energy levels, 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82 and 126 are called magic numbers.
C: Nuclear Reactions
Unstable nuclei undergo spontaneous changes.
Their number of protons and/or neutrons changes.
This permits them to release energy and become more stable.
Nuclear Reaction - definition
In such a reaction, the total of the atomic numbers on each side must be equal and the total of the mass numbers on each side must be equal.
e.g. 94Be + 42He ---> 126C + 10n
Transmutation - definition
Sample problem 22-1 page 704
Identify the product that balances the following nuclear reaction:
21284Po -- -> 42He + ??
Solution: 4 + x = 212; x = 208
2 + x = 84; x = 82
Look up the atomic number 82 on the periodic table to get the symbol and it is lead, Pb.
Ans: 20882Pb
Homework 22.1
II: Radioactive Decay
1896 Henri Becquerel, uranium compound, photographic plate, nuclear radiation due to radioactive decay.
Radioactive decay - definition
Nuclear radiation - definition
Radioactive nuclide - definition
e.g. uranium
Marie and Pierre Curie in 1896 discovered polonium and radium, which brought to four the number of radioactive nuclides known at that time, the other two were uranium and thorium.
All nuclides beyond atomic number 83 are unstable and radioactive.
A: Types of Radioactive Decay
A nuclides type and rate of decay depend on the nucleon content and energy level of the nucleus.
Table 22-1 page 705 Radioactive Nuclide Emissions
alpha particle, 42He, 2+, 4.002 60
beta particle, 0-1B, 1-, 0.000 5486
positron, 0+1B, 1+, 0.000 5486
gamma ray, g, 0, 0
1. Alpha Emission
alpha particle - definition
they are helium nuclei and have a charge of 2+.
symbol is 42He
emitted by very heavy nuclei since these nuclei must decrease their mass to become stable
e.g. 21084Po ---> 20682Pb + 42He
2. Beta Emission
Elements above the band of stability have too many neutrons and are unstable. A neutron can be converted into a proton and an electron. The electron can be emitted and this is a beta particle.
Beta particle - definition
10n ---> 11p + 0-1B
3. Positron Emission
Elements below the band of stability have too many protons. A proton can be converted into a neutron by emitting a positron.
Positron - definition
11p ---> 10n + 0+1B
e.g. 3819K ---> 3818Ar + 0+1B
4. Electron Capture
Occurs in electron decay for nuclides with too many protons.
electron capture - definition
The inner orbit al electron combines with a proton to form a neutron.
0-1e + 11p ---> 10n
e.g. 10647Ag 0-1e ---> 10646Pd
5. Gamma Emission
Gamma rays - definition
Figure 22-6 page 707 - Position of gamma radiation in electromagnetic radiation spectrum.
This type of emission supports the nuclear shell model as gamma rays are produced when nuclear particles undergo transition in nuclear energy levels. Similar to emission of light when an electron goes from an excited state to its ground state.
Gamma emission usually occurs immediately following other types of decay, when other types of decay leave the nucleus in an excited state.
B: Half Life
Half Life - definition
Each radioactive nuclide has its own half life. More stable nuclides decay slowly and have longer half lives.
Table 22-2 page 708 - Representative Radioactive Nuclides and Their Half Lives
Sample Problem 22-2 page 709
Phosphorus-32 has a half life of 14.3 days. How many milligrams of phosphorus-32 remain after 57.2 days if you start with 4.0 mg of the isotope?
Given: original mass = 4.0 mg; half life = 14.3 days; time elapsed = 57.2 days; mass of phosphorus remaining = ?
How many half lives have passed:
Homework 22.2
C: Decay Series
Decay series - definition
Necessary since it is not always possible to become stable after a single nuclear reaction
Parent nuclide - definition
Daughter nuclide - definition
All naturally occurring nuclides with atomic numbers greater than 83 are radioactive and belong to one of three natural decay series.
The parent nuclides are uranium-238, uranium-235, and thorium-232.
Figure 22-8 page 710 Transmutation of uranium-238 to lead-206.
Notice the color of the arrows to indicate the particle emitted and the change in position of the daughter nuclide to correspond to the new atomic mass and atomic number. Also note the half lives are in each circle.
D: Artificial Transmutations
Artificial radioactive nuclides - definition
Ar tificial transmutations - definition
Neutrons are not repelled by anything in the nucleus since they have no charge and can, thus, penetrate the nucleus.
Charged particles can be used to penetrate the nucleus but they need a lot of energy to overcome repulsion and so particle accelerators are used.
Figure 22-9 page 711 Particle Accelerator at the Fermi Labs in Illinois.
1. Artificial Radioactive Nuclides
Radioactive isotopes of all the natural elements have been produced by artificial transmutation.
Figure 22-10 page 712 Artificial transmutation and the periodic table
Artificial transmutation has also been used to produce the transuranium elements - those elements with more than 92 protons in their nuclei. They are all radioactive.
Table 22-3 page 712 Reactions for the first preparation of several transuranium elements
Homework 22.3
End of Notes
mass defect is the difference between the mass of an atom and the sum of the masses of its protons, neutrons, and electrons.
nuclear bin ding energy is the energy released when a nucleus is formed from it nucleons.
Band of stability is the cluster of stable nuclei over a range of neutron-proton ratios.
Nuclear reaction is a reaction that affects the nucleus of an atom.
A transmutation is a change in the identity of a nucleus as a result of a change in the number of its protons.
Radioactive decay is the spontaneous disintegration of a nucleus into a slightly lighter nucleus, accompanied by emission of particles, electromagnetic radiation, or both.
Nuclear radiation is particles or electromagnetic radiation emitted from the nucleus during radioactive decay.
A radioactive nuclide is an unstable nucleus that undergoes radioactive decay.
An alpha particle is two protons and two neutrons bound together and is emitted from the nucleus during some kinds of radioactive decay.
A beta particle is an electron emitted from the nucleus during some kinds of radioactive dec ay.
A positron is a particle that has the same mass as an electron,but has a positive charge, and is emitted from the nucleus during some kinds of radioactive decay.
Electron capture involves an inner orbital electron captured by the nucleus of its own atom.
Gamma Rays are high energy electromagnetic waves emitted from a nucleus as it changes from an excited state to a ground energy state.
Half life is the time required for half the atoms of a radioactive nuclide to decay.
A decay series is a series of radioactive nuclides produced by successive radioactive decay until a stable nuclide is reached.
Parent nuclide is the heaviest nuclide of each decay series.
The daughter nuclides are the nuclides produced by the decay of the parent nuclides.
Artificial radioactive nuclides are radioactive nuclides not found naturally on Earth.
Artificial transmutations are bombardment of stable nuclei with charged and uncharged particles. Z N DSET 2 H h U 6 * J U * d xpr 3 MTHU 3 UGrphbj
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com.apple.print.ticket.modDate
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com.apple.print.ticket.stateFlag
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com.apple.print.ticket.creator
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com.apple.print.ticket.itemArray
com.apple.print.PaperInfo.PMPaperName
na-letter
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US Letter
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com.apple.print.ticket.modDate
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com.apple.print.ticket.type
com.apple.print.PageFormatTicket
ETBL hDSUM \"HDNI \BSTYL \LMCRO ioBlN iMARK iWMBT iSNAP iTNAM z CPRT zDETBL
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